Rice Science ›› 2025, Vol. 32 ›› Issue (5): 637-648.DOI: 10.1016/j.rsci.2025.06.007
收稿日期:2025-02-02
接受日期:2025-06-16
出版日期:2025-09-28
发布日期:2025-10-11
. [J]. Rice Science, 2025, 32(5): 637-648.
Fig. 1. Mind map of negative impacts of straw burning. The multidimensional negative impacts of straw burning across environmental, agronomic, health, and socio-economic domains. The figure visualizes how straw burning releases multiple atmospheric pollutants, including particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10) (Kim Oanh et al, 2018), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), dioxins, and furans (Romasanta et al, 2017; Mohammad et al, 2023), leading to air quality deterioration, smog formation, and transboundary haze (Romasanta et al, 2017). These emissions exacerbate climate change through elevated greenhouse gas (CO2, CH4, N2O) concentrations and contribute to acid rain, soil acidification, and ecosystem degradation (Romasanta et al, 2017; Zealand et al, 2017; Sakhiya et al, 2023; Zhang et al, 2023). The mind map further illustrates agronomic impacts: burning depletes soil organic carbon, reduces microbial biomass and diversity, disrupts nutrient cycles, and accelerates erosion, undermining long-term soil fertility and agricultural productivity (El-Sobky, 2017; Mohammad et al, 2023; Carmona-Yáñez et al, 2023; Lin et al, 2025). Health consequences are highlighted through increased risks of respiratory diseases, cardiovascular conditions, neurotoxicity, and mortality, particularly among vulnerable populations (Chang et al, 2014; Trivedi et al, 2017; Mohammad et al, 2023). Socioeconomic dimensions include healthcare burdens, productivity losses, biodiversity threats, and broader costs from environmental degradation and resource loss (de Aquino et al, 2017; Laskar et al, 2020; Carmona-Yáñez et al, 2023; Dong et al, 2024; Singh et al, 2025).
Fig. 2. Solutions to straw burning. The figure summarizes available solutions across technological, agronomic, industrial, and policy dimensions. The figure highlights energy valorization pathways such as bioenergy, biogas, torrefaction, and co-firing, which convert agricultural residues into renewable energy while reducing emissions (Trivedi et al, 2017; Zealand et al, 2017; Yang et al, 2021; Szufa et al, 2023). It also shows agricultural solutions like soil incorporation, mulching, biochar production, and post-harvest field management, which improve soil health and reduce the need for burning (Park et al, 2014; Vega et al, 2014; Niang et al, 2016; Schjønning, 2023). Industrial applications, including pelletization, activated carbon production, and cellulose extraction, offer high-value uses for straw, adding economic incentives (Jeong et al, 2016; Sun et al, 2021; Shao et al, 2023). Furthermore, the figure shows the livestock and food solutions in term of mushroom farming by using straw as a growth medium, and utilizing straw for animal feed (Zhang N et al, 2015; Kim Oanh et al, 2018). Additionally, the figure emphasizes the critical role of enabling policies, financial incentives, and educational programs to promote the adoption of sustainable practices (Giannoccaro et al, 2017; Kim Oanh et al, 2018).
Fig. 3. Multidimensional analysis of straw management solutions. Multidimensional analysis of straw management solutions, evaluating 15 options across four key dimensions: sustainability, implementation feasibility, cost efficiency, and impact. The figure shows that agricultural solutions like soil incorporation and mulching achieve the best overall balance, combining high sustainability, ease of implementation, and cost efficiency. High-tech options such as bioenergy and biochar deliver strong environmental benefits but face higher costs and complexity. Scale description: Cost (1‒5): 1, Very expensive; 5, Very cheap. Impact (1‒5): 1, Minimum impact; 5, Maximum impact. Implementation (1‒5): 1, Very difficult to implement; 5, Very easy to implement. Sustainability (1‒5): 1, Highly unsustainable; 5, Highly sustainable.
| Category | Cause | Citation | Quotation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Time and efficiency constraints | Limited time between harvest and the next growing season | Beig et al, | Average available time between the rice harvesting and wheat sowing is in the range of 20‒30 d depending on the varieties of rice crop |
| The fastest method to clear the land | Kim Oanh et al, | Crop residue open burning is viewed by regional farmers as the cheapest and fastest way to clear land for the next crop | |
| Increased ploughing efficiency | Mohammad et al, | It improves the efficiency of plowing and reduces the need for herbicides and pesticides | |
| Economic constraints | Expensive alternative management costs | Holder et al, | Planting directly in heavy residues requires specialized and expensive machinery |
| Uneconomical straw selling price | Trivedi et al, | Farmers sell paddy straw at an uneconomical price of INR 500 ($7.50) per metric tonne | |
| Lack of incentives to stop burning | Nguyen et al, | Rice growers have little incentive to stop | |
| Infrastructure constraints | Poor storage facilities | Singh G et al, | Mechanized agricultural practices, poor storage facilities |
| Limitations of alternative straw processing | Röder et al, | In the absence of alternatives, the burning continues as a quick and low-cost means of disposal | |
| Lack of alternative technologies | Dong et al, | Due to traditional agricultural practices and technological constraints, the utilization of rice straw remains low | |
| Technical constraints | High silica content | Niang et al, | Rice plants have a high silica content, which prevents rice straw from being used as a compostable bi-product |
| Difficulties in incorporation of straw into the ground | Zealand et al, | Incorporation of rice straw into soil is difficult, due to the relatively short time between harvest and seed | |
| Large volume of straw | El-Sobky, | Burning is the cheapest and easiest way to remove the huge load of straw produced | |
| Agronomic factors | Pest and disease control | Holder et al, | Low-cost method to reduce residues and control or eliminate fungal diseases, pest eggs, and weeds |
| Reduction of soil moisture | Mohammad et al, | Burning straw in the field helps lower the moisture level | |
| Return of nutrients to the soil | Holder et al, | Incineration also provides the added benefit of fertilizing ash by quickly returning minerals to the soil | |
| Socio-cultural factors | Traditional practices that are difficult to change | Nguyen et al, | Despite many efforts to enforce worldwide bans, on-site burning still takes place in many cultivation regions |
| Farmers’ beliefs about the benefits of incineration | El-Sobky, | Rice farmers are used to burning rice straw because they believe there are several benefits obtained for soil fertility | |
| Ease of practice and management | de Aquino et al, | Harvesting systems that have been burned before are easier to practice and require less sustainable management | |
| Agricultural system changes | Increased use of combined harvesting machines | Connor et al, | Increased production and mechanization, such as the use of combined harvesters, which leaves more straw in the field |
| Decrease in the use of straw as animal feed | Ayesh, | The increase in straw burning is also due to the decrease in the use of rice residues as animal feed | |
| Agricultural mechanization | Singh D et al, | Mechanized agricultural practices | |
| Environmental constraints | Weather conditions that do not support natural drying | Mohammad et al, | Farmers do not wait for the soil to dry out after harvesting rice naturally |
| Regulatory constraints | Weak law enforcement | Chang et al, | Open waste burning has been prohibited in Taiwan of China since 1990. However, this regulation is poorly enforced and open crop burning is still commonly used |
| Regional economic factors | Distance from biomass processing facilities | Ortuzar-Iragorri et al, | Part of the cereal straw is being sent to a nearby biomass plant for energy production, other part of this straw, presumably the furthest from the biomass plant, is treated as waste and burned at the field |
| Processing constraints | Long decomposition time | Ortuzar-Iragorri et al, | Wheat growers are reluctant to do so because it takes too long for the straw to decompose and it complicates the seeding and a homogeneous fertilization of the soil |
| Production factors | Increased yield | Gao et al, | With the increase in agricultural yields due to better management and agricultural technology, the proportion of rice straw used for energy and animal feed has decreased substantially |
| Utilization constraints | Limited use of straw | Sun et al, | Due to only the leaves are used as feed, most straw is discarded or burned, causing pollution and resource waste |
| Seasonal factors | Seasonal combustion needs | Zhang et al, | Especially during the harvest season (summer harvest: from late May to early June; autumn harvest: from late October to early November) |
Table 1. Causes of farmers burning straw.
| Category | Cause | Citation | Quotation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Time and efficiency constraints | Limited time between harvest and the next growing season | Beig et al, | Average available time between the rice harvesting and wheat sowing is in the range of 20‒30 d depending on the varieties of rice crop |
| The fastest method to clear the land | Kim Oanh et al, | Crop residue open burning is viewed by regional farmers as the cheapest and fastest way to clear land for the next crop | |
| Increased ploughing efficiency | Mohammad et al, | It improves the efficiency of plowing and reduces the need for herbicides and pesticides | |
| Economic constraints | Expensive alternative management costs | Holder et al, | Planting directly in heavy residues requires specialized and expensive machinery |
| Uneconomical straw selling price | Trivedi et al, | Farmers sell paddy straw at an uneconomical price of INR 500 ($7.50) per metric tonne | |
| Lack of incentives to stop burning | Nguyen et al, | Rice growers have little incentive to stop | |
| Infrastructure constraints | Poor storage facilities | Singh G et al, | Mechanized agricultural practices, poor storage facilities |
| Limitations of alternative straw processing | Röder et al, | In the absence of alternatives, the burning continues as a quick and low-cost means of disposal | |
| Lack of alternative technologies | Dong et al, | Due to traditional agricultural practices and technological constraints, the utilization of rice straw remains low | |
| Technical constraints | High silica content | Niang et al, | Rice plants have a high silica content, which prevents rice straw from being used as a compostable bi-product |
| Difficulties in incorporation of straw into the ground | Zealand et al, | Incorporation of rice straw into soil is difficult, due to the relatively short time between harvest and seed | |
| Large volume of straw | El-Sobky, | Burning is the cheapest and easiest way to remove the huge load of straw produced | |
| Agronomic factors | Pest and disease control | Holder et al, | Low-cost method to reduce residues and control or eliminate fungal diseases, pest eggs, and weeds |
| Reduction of soil moisture | Mohammad et al, | Burning straw in the field helps lower the moisture level | |
| Return of nutrients to the soil | Holder et al, | Incineration also provides the added benefit of fertilizing ash by quickly returning minerals to the soil | |
| Socio-cultural factors | Traditional practices that are difficult to change | Nguyen et al, | Despite many efforts to enforce worldwide bans, on-site burning still takes place in many cultivation regions |
| Farmers’ beliefs about the benefits of incineration | El-Sobky, | Rice farmers are used to burning rice straw because they believe there are several benefits obtained for soil fertility | |
| Ease of practice and management | de Aquino et al, | Harvesting systems that have been burned before are easier to practice and require less sustainable management | |
| Agricultural system changes | Increased use of combined harvesting machines | Connor et al, | Increased production and mechanization, such as the use of combined harvesters, which leaves more straw in the field |
| Decrease in the use of straw as animal feed | Ayesh, | The increase in straw burning is also due to the decrease in the use of rice residues as animal feed | |
| Agricultural mechanization | Singh D et al, | Mechanized agricultural practices | |
| Environmental constraints | Weather conditions that do not support natural drying | Mohammad et al, | Farmers do not wait for the soil to dry out after harvesting rice naturally |
| Regulatory constraints | Weak law enforcement | Chang et al, | Open waste burning has been prohibited in Taiwan of China since 1990. However, this regulation is poorly enforced and open crop burning is still commonly used |
| Regional economic factors | Distance from biomass processing facilities | Ortuzar-Iragorri et al, | Part of the cereal straw is being sent to a nearby biomass plant for energy production, other part of this straw, presumably the furthest from the biomass plant, is treated as waste and burned at the field |
| Processing constraints | Long decomposition time | Ortuzar-Iragorri et al, | Wheat growers are reluctant to do so because it takes too long for the straw to decompose and it complicates the seeding and a homogeneous fertilization of the soil |
| Production factors | Increased yield | Gao et al, | With the increase in agricultural yields due to better management and agricultural technology, the proportion of rice straw used for energy and animal feed has decreased substantially |
| Utilization constraints | Limited use of straw | Sun et al, | Due to only the leaves are used as feed, most straw is discarded or burned, causing pollution and resource waste |
| Seasonal factors | Seasonal combustion needs | Zhang et al, | Especially during the harvest season (summer harvest: from late May to early June; autumn harvest: from late October to early November) |
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