Towards Climate-Smart Rice Cultivation: Addressing Methane Emission Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies for a Sustainable Future

doi:10.1016/j.rsci.2025.11.002

Abstract

Abstract:

Rice fields are one of the largest sources of methane (CH₄), a potent greenhouse gas contributing significantly to global warming. Elucidating the underlying mechanisms and mitigating CH₄ emissions from paddy fields is crucial for combating climate change while ensuring sustainable food production. This review investigates the biological processes governing CH₄ generation in rice fields, focusing on how soil microorganisms generate CH₄ under waterlogged, anaerobic conditions. It also explores the mechanisms by which CH₄ escapes into the atmosphere through plant-mediated transport, diffusion, and ebullition. Several factors influencing CH₄ emissions are discussed, including soil composition, water management, exogenous organic matter application, rice variety selection, and local climate conditions. Strategies that can be implemented to reduce CH₄ emissions are assessed, such as alternate wetting and drying, urea deep placement, biochar application, optimized fertilizer application, and breeding of rice varieties with low CH₄ emissions. Novel solutions, such as the enhancement of methane-consuming bacteria in soils using microbial-based approaches, are also explored. The importance of integrating innovative technologies, improved farming practices, and interdisciplinary research is emphasized to develop practical and scalable strategies for reducing CH₄ emissions. By addressing these challenges, we can advance towards the attainment of sustainable agriculture and global climate goals. This review aims to serve as a comprehensive resource for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners seeking to understand and mitigate CH₄ emissions from rice cultivation.

Key words: methane, soil microorganism, methanogen, methanotroph, greenhouse gas

Saleem Asif, Sajjad Asaf, Rahmat Ullah Jan, Du Xiaoxuan, Jae-Ryoung Park, Kyung-Min Kim. Towards Climate-Smart Rice Cultivation: Addressing Methane Emission Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies for a Sustainable Future[J]. Rice Science, 2026, 33(2): 203-220.

Figures/Tables 7

Fig. 1. Taxonomy of major methanogens and methanotrophs. The phylogenetic tree was constructed using methanogen and methanotroph DNA sequences from Nazaries et al (2013) and Trotsenko and Murrell (2008). The numbers above branches indicate the bootstrap values. The brown color corresponds to methanogens, and the green color corresponds to methanotrophs. Outer legends are the pathways methanogens use for CH4 production. Middle legends are the growth conditions of methanotrophs, i.e. Psychrophiles grow at 5 ºC-10 ºC but not at temperatures above 20 ºC, halophiles grow at 15% NaCl, thermophiles grow at more than 45 ºC, and acidophiles grow at pH of 3.8-5.5. The inner legends indicate the preferred gas ratio of methanotrophs. NA, Not available.

Fig. 2. Mechanisms of methanogenesis and methanotrophy. The acetoclastic and hydrogenotrophic pathways of methanogenesis, illustrating the conversion of acetate and hydrogen/carbon dioxide into CH4 by methanogenic archaea. The methanotrophic pathway is illustrated on the right, wherein CH4 is oxidized to carbon dioxide by methanotrophic microorganisms through enzymatic reactions. Acetyl-Pi, Acetyl phosphate; ADP, Adenosine diphosphate; ATP, Adenosine triphosphate; AMO, Ammonia monooxygenase; CoB, Coenzyme B; CoM, Coenzyme M; F420, Coenzyme F420; FADH, Formaldehyde dehydrogenase; FDH, Formate dehydrogenase; H4F, Tetrahydrofolate; H4MPT, Tetrahydromethanopterin; H4SPT, Tetrahydrosarcinapterin; HS-CoA, HS-coenzyme A; MDH, Methanol dehydrogenase; MF, Methanofuran; MMO, Methane monooxygenase; NAD+, Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (oxidized form); NADH, Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (reduced form); RuMP pathway, Ribulose monophosphate pathway; TCA cycle, Tricarboxylic acid cycle; Temp, Temperature.

Fig. 3. Schematic representation of methane production and its transport pathways in paddy fields. Methane (CH4) is produced in the anaerobic soil layer by methanogenic archaea and is emitted to the atmosphere via three main pathways: diffusion through the water column (purple arrows), ebullition as CH4 bubbles rising through the water (blue bubble shapes), and plant-mediated transport through rice plants via their aerenchyma. Factors influencing each pathway are listed on both sides.

Fig. 4. Model representing aerenchyma formation and gas exchange in rice roots.

Table 1. Methane emissions from fields in various countries and locations with different soil textures.

Study location	Soil texture	Water condition	Organic carbon (g/kg)	CH₄ emissions (kg/hm²)	Reference
Bangladesh	Clay loam	IF	17.8	158.00	Ali et al, 2015
Bangladesh	Slit loam	CF	39.6^a	124.00	Ali et al, 2013
China	Clay loam	CF	41.3^a	153.50	Liang et al, 2016
China	Sandy loam	IF	18.4	294.00	Dong et al, 2011
China	Sandy loam	IF	18.4	207.87	Yao et al, 2012
China	Silty clay	CF	18.3	440.90	Ahmad et al, 2009
India	Alluvial soil	CF	8.6	18.61	Adhya et al, 2000
India	Loam	IF	4.5	14.10	Pathak et al, 2003
India	Sandy clay loam	CF	6.6	125.34	Jagadeesh Babu et al, 2006
India	Sandy clay loam	CF	6.6	113.39	Das and Adhya, 2014
India	Sandy clay loam	CF	9.0	246.22	Datta and Adhya, 2014
India	Sandy loam	IF	5.9	35.10	Bhatia et al, 2005
India	Sandy loam	IF	6.9	21.50	Khosa et al, 2010
India	Sandy loam	IF	4.9	30.72	Bhatia et al, 2013
India	Sandy loam	CF	5.6	32.33	Suryavanshi et al, 2013
India	Sandy loam	SC	5.0	22.59	Jain et al, 2014
Indonesia	Sandy loam	CF	23.7	1845.34	Hadi et al, 2010
Japan	Sandy loam	CF	9.0	140.00	Riya et al, 2014
Japan	Sandy loam	IF	36.8	146.00	Ali et al, 2015
Korea	Clay loam	IF	39.6	163.00	Ali et al, 2015
Korea	Silt loam	CF	23.4	390.00	Lee et al, 2010
Korea	Silt loam	CF	20.4^a	205.00	Haque et al, 2013
Myanmar	Alluvial soil	CF	5.1	280.00	Oo et al, 2015
Myanmar	Clay loam	CF	5.1	285.00	Oo et al, 2015
Vietnam	Slit loam	CF	12.6	108.00	Pandey et al, 2014

Table 2. Genes influencing rice root architecture.

Characteristic	Gene	Chromosome
Root cone angle	SOR1	4
Root cone angle	DRO1	9
Root cone angle	DOCS1	2
Overall architecture under nitrogen deficiency	RDWN6^XB	6
Root curling	OsHOS1	3
Lateral root development	SPR1	1
Crown root development	OsCKX4	1

Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of factors affecting CH4 production, emission, and oxidation in paddy fields.

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