Rice Science ›› 2025, Vol. 32 ›› Issue (1): 15-31.DOI: 10.1016/j.rsci.2024.10.004
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Intan Farahanah1, Shariza Sahudin1(
), Hannis Fadzillah Mohsin2, Siti Alwani Ariffin3, Liyana Dhamirah Aminuddin4
Received:2024-07-11
Accepted:2024-10-08
Online:2025-01-28
Published:2025-03-25
Contact:
Shariza Sahudin
Intan Farahanah, Shariza Sahudin, Hannis Fadzillah Mohsin, Siti Alwani Ariffin, Liyana Dhamirah Aminuddin. Understanding Investigational Perspective of Antioxidant and Antibacterial Properties of Rice[J]. Rice Science, 2025, 32(1): 15-31.
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| Cereal | Bioactive pyhtochemical | Biological activity | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PA | FL | OP | DF | CT | TO | PH | GO | PHA | ||
| Rice | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | Anticytotoxic, antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory actions (Zhu et al, |
| Wheat | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | Antioxidant, anti-inflammation, protective effects against chronic diseases (cardiovascular, diabetes, and certain types of cancer) (Caminero and Verdu, |
| Corn | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, prebiotics, analgesic, opioid, and antihypertensive activities (Sánchez-Nuño et al, |
| Oat | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | ‒ | √ | √ | √ | Cardiovascular, antioxidant, anti-infllamatory, diabetes and weight management, and cancer prevention (Martínez-Villaluenga and Peñas, |
| Millet | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | ‒ | √ | √ | √ | Anti-diabetic, digestive and heart health, antioxidant, immune support, anti-aging, and anti-obesity (Nagre et al, |
| Sorghum | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | ‒ | √ | √ | √ | Antioxidant, anti-infllamatory, antimicrobial, and diabetes and cardiovascular management (Elkhatim et al, |
| Barley | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | Cholesterol and blood sugar reduction, anticancer activity, antioxidant and detoxifying properties, anti-inflammatory, and anti-arthritic (Raj et al, |
| Rye | √ | √ | √ | √ | ‒ | √ | √ | √ | √ | Cholesterol and blood sugar reduction, digestive, weight and heart management, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory (Kaur et al, |
| Buckwheat | √ | √ | √ | √ | ‒ | ‒ | √ | √ | √ | Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial properties, cholesterol-lowering ability, hypoglycemic effect, antitumor activity, and good for celiac disease (Sofi et al, |
Table 1. Summary of cereals, bioactive phytochemicals, and associated biological activities.
| Cereal | Bioactive pyhtochemical | Biological activity | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PA | FL | OP | DF | CT | TO | PH | GO | PHA | ||
| Rice | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | Anticytotoxic, antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory actions (Zhu et al, |
| Wheat | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | Antioxidant, anti-inflammation, protective effects against chronic diseases (cardiovascular, diabetes, and certain types of cancer) (Caminero and Verdu, |
| Corn | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, prebiotics, analgesic, opioid, and antihypertensive activities (Sánchez-Nuño et al, |
| Oat | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | ‒ | √ | √ | √ | Cardiovascular, antioxidant, anti-infllamatory, diabetes and weight management, and cancer prevention (Martínez-Villaluenga and Peñas, |
| Millet | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | ‒ | √ | √ | √ | Anti-diabetic, digestive and heart health, antioxidant, immune support, anti-aging, and anti-obesity (Nagre et al, |
| Sorghum | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | ‒ | √ | √ | √ | Antioxidant, anti-infllamatory, antimicrobial, and diabetes and cardiovascular management (Elkhatim et al, |
| Barley | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | √ | Cholesterol and blood sugar reduction, anticancer activity, antioxidant and detoxifying properties, anti-inflammatory, and anti-arthritic (Raj et al, |
| Rye | √ | √ | √ | √ | ‒ | √ | √ | √ | √ | Cholesterol and blood sugar reduction, digestive, weight and heart management, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory (Kaur et al, |
| Buckwheat | √ | √ | √ | √ | ‒ | ‒ | √ | √ | √ | Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial properties, cholesterol-lowering ability, hypoglycemic effect, antitumor activity, and good for celiac disease (Sofi et al, |
| Mechanism | Assay | Chromogenic agent | Principle of assay | Observed change | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total antioxidant capacity | |||||
| HAT | Oxygen radical absorbance capacity | Fluorescein and dichlorofluorescein | The peroxyl-radical oxidation of the probe, generated by thermal decomposition of AAPH, causes fluorescence, which is delayed or suppressed by antioxidants | Fluorescence decay | Lussignoli et al, |
| Total peroxyl radical trapping antioxidant parameter | β-phycoerythrin | Antioxidants delay fluorescence occurs over times because of probe oxidation | Fluorescence decay | Gupta, | |
| Reducing antioxidant power | |||||
| SET | Ferric reducing antioxidant potential | Ferric tripyridyl triazine | Ferric tripyridyl triazine can be converted to ferrous form by antioxidants as a reductant at low pH, increasing absorbance | Yellow to blue | Robak and Gryglewski, |
| Folin-Ciocalteu | Tungstate-molybdate complexes | In a basic solution, the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent can oxidize reducing agents, primarily phenolic and polyphenolic antioxidants. The transfer of Mo6+ to Mo5+ increases absorbance, leading to colour change | Yellow to dark blue | Magalhães et al, | |
| Potassium ferricyanide reducing power assay | Ferricyanide reagent: Fe3+ and Fe(CN)63− | Potassium ferrocyanide Fe(CN)64− is created when antioxidants react with potassium ferricyanide Fe (CN)63−, which then reacts with FeCl3 to create KFe[Fe(CN)6] | Prussian blue | Kumar et al, | |
| Ferric thiocyanate | Fe(S-CN)2 | A ferrous ion is converted to a ferric ion by a hydroperoxide that is created from linoleic acid. The ability of antioxidants to donate an electron to the ferric ion or both has an inhibitory influence on hydroperoxide synthesis | Red | Sharma et al, | |
| Assays associated with lipid peroxidation | |||||
| SET | Lipid peroxidation inhibition assay | N-methyl-2- phenylindole | Malonyl dialdehyde production caused by radicals is postponed by antioxidants. MDA produces a carbocyanine adduct when combined with a chromogenic agent | Dye product | Özyürek et al, |
| TBARS assay | TBARS | MDA-TBA adducts are produced when TBA and MDA interact | Red pink | de Leon and Borges, | |
| Radical scavenging assay | |||||
| SET | Superoxide anion radical scavenging capacity | NBT | Antioxidant’s capacity to compete with NBT for O2·̄ produced by an enzymatic HPX-XOD, X-XOD, or PMS/NADH system | Yellow to blue | Fontana et al, |
| Hydroxyl radical scavenging capacity assay | Fenton line system Fe2+/H2O2 | Pure •OH radicals are continuously produced by the Fenton system. Electron spin resonance measurements assess the ability of antioxidants to scavenge •OH radicals | ‒ | Cheng et al, | |
| Nitric oxide free radical scavenging activity | Griess reagent | Greiss reaction was used to create nitric oxide from sodium nitroprusside and quantify it. Antioxidants lower nitrite concentration | Colorless to light pink to deep purple | Habu and Ibeh, | |
| HAT/SET | ABTS | ABTS∙+ | A radical cation (ABTS∙+) is produced when MnO2 or Na/K persulphate are added to ABTS. Antioxidants lower the level of ABTS∙+. | Bluish green to colorless | Re et al, |
| DPPH | DPPH radical | As antioxidant’s concentration increases, DPPH absorbance decreases linearly | Deep violet to pale yellow or colorless | Ndhlala et al, | |
Table 2. Summary of selected in vitro non-enzymatic assays used to determine antioxidant capacity of rice.
| Mechanism | Assay | Chromogenic agent | Principle of assay | Observed change | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total antioxidant capacity | |||||
| HAT | Oxygen radical absorbance capacity | Fluorescein and dichlorofluorescein | The peroxyl-radical oxidation of the probe, generated by thermal decomposition of AAPH, causes fluorescence, which is delayed or suppressed by antioxidants | Fluorescence decay | Lussignoli et al, |
| Total peroxyl radical trapping antioxidant parameter | β-phycoerythrin | Antioxidants delay fluorescence occurs over times because of probe oxidation | Fluorescence decay | Gupta, | |
| Reducing antioxidant power | |||||
| SET | Ferric reducing antioxidant potential | Ferric tripyridyl triazine | Ferric tripyridyl triazine can be converted to ferrous form by antioxidants as a reductant at low pH, increasing absorbance | Yellow to blue | Robak and Gryglewski, |
| Folin-Ciocalteu | Tungstate-molybdate complexes | In a basic solution, the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent can oxidize reducing agents, primarily phenolic and polyphenolic antioxidants. The transfer of Mo6+ to Mo5+ increases absorbance, leading to colour change | Yellow to dark blue | Magalhães et al, | |
| Potassium ferricyanide reducing power assay | Ferricyanide reagent: Fe3+ and Fe(CN)63− | Potassium ferrocyanide Fe(CN)64− is created when antioxidants react with potassium ferricyanide Fe (CN)63−, which then reacts with FeCl3 to create KFe[Fe(CN)6] | Prussian blue | Kumar et al, | |
| Ferric thiocyanate | Fe(S-CN)2 | A ferrous ion is converted to a ferric ion by a hydroperoxide that is created from linoleic acid. The ability of antioxidants to donate an electron to the ferric ion or both has an inhibitory influence on hydroperoxide synthesis | Red | Sharma et al, | |
| Assays associated with lipid peroxidation | |||||
| SET | Lipid peroxidation inhibition assay | N-methyl-2- phenylindole | Malonyl dialdehyde production caused by radicals is postponed by antioxidants. MDA produces a carbocyanine adduct when combined with a chromogenic agent | Dye product | Özyürek et al, |
| TBARS assay | TBARS | MDA-TBA adducts are produced when TBA and MDA interact | Red pink | de Leon and Borges, | |
| Radical scavenging assay | |||||
| SET | Superoxide anion radical scavenging capacity | NBT | Antioxidant’s capacity to compete with NBT for O2·̄ produced by an enzymatic HPX-XOD, X-XOD, or PMS/NADH system | Yellow to blue | Fontana et al, |
| Hydroxyl radical scavenging capacity assay | Fenton line system Fe2+/H2O2 | Pure •OH radicals are continuously produced by the Fenton system. Electron spin resonance measurements assess the ability of antioxidants to scavenge •OH radicals | ‒ | Cheng et al, | |
| Nitric oxide free radical scavenging activity | Griess reagent | Greiss reaction was used to create nitric oxide from sodium nitroprusside and quantify it. Antioxidants lower nitrite concentration | Colorless to light pink to deep purple | Habu and Ibeh, | |
| HAT/SET | ABTS | ABTS∙+ | A radical cation (ABTS∙+) is produced when MnO2 or Na/K persulphate are added to ABTS. Antioxidants lower the level of ABTS∙+. | Bluish green to colorless | Re et al, |
| DPPH | DPPH radical | As antioxidant’s concentration increases, DPPH absorbance decreases linearly | Deep violet to pale yellow or colorless | Ndhlala et al, | |
| Assay | Concentration | Solvent | Incubation period | Wavelength (nm) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| DPPH | 0.2 mmol/L | Methanol | 30 min in the dark | 517 | Lin et al, et al, 2019 |
| 0.1 mmol/L | Methanol | 30 min in the dark | 517 | Zaky et al, | |
| 0.5 mmol/L | Methanol | 30 min in the dark | 517 | Pradipta et al, | |
| 100 µmol/L | Methanol | 30 min in the dark | 520 | Okonogi et al, | |
| 0.5 mmol/L | Methanol | 30 min in the dark | 520 | Chanthathamrongsiri et al, 2022 | |
| 24 mg/L | Methanol | 30 min in the dark | 516 | Sani et al, | |
| 500 μmol/L | Methanol | 30‒40 min in the dark | 515 | Tyagi et al, | |
| 100 μmol/L | Methanol | 20 min in the dark | 517 | Ghasemzadeh et al, | |
| 350 µmol/L | Methanol | 15 min in the dark | 517 | Zhang et al, | |
| 0.2 mmol/L | Ethanol | 30 min in the dark | 517 | Surin et al, | |
| 0.5 mmol/L | Ethanol | 30 min in the dark | 517 | Priyanthi and Sivakanesan, | |
| Assay | Stock solution | Working solution | Incubation period | Wavelength (nm) | Reference |
| ABTS | 7 mmol/L ABTS and 2.4 mmol/L potassium persulfate | 2.5 mL of ABTS stock solution was diluted with distilled water to absorbance at 1.0 | Stock solution: 12‒16 h; Working solution: 5‒6 min | 734 | Pattananandecha et al, 2021; Surin et al, 2018 |
| 2.5 mL of ABTS stock solution was diluted with methanol to absorbance at 0.7 | Stock solution: 12‒16 h; Working solution: 5‒6 min | 734 | Zhang et al, | ||
| 2.5 mL of ABTS stock solution was diluted with ethanol to absorbance at 0.7 | Stock solution: 16 h; Working solution: 7 min | 734 | Zaky et al, | ||
| Stock solution: 12 h; Working solution: 5 min | 750 | Okonogi et al, | |||
| 14 mmol/L ABTS and 4.9 mmol/L potassium persulfate, at a ratio of 1:1 | 2.5 mL ABTS radical cation solution was diluted with distilled water to absorbance at 0.70 ± 0.02 | Stock solution: 16‒20 h; Working solution: 6 min | 734 | Chanthathamrongsiri et al, 2022 | |
| Assay | Reagent and solvent | Incubation period | Wavelength (nm) | Reference | |
| FRAP | 300 mmol/L Na acetate buffer (pH 3.6), 10 mmol/L TPTZ solution, and 20 mmol/L FeCl3∙6H2O solution at a ratio of 10:1:1 | 4 min | 593 | Priyanthi and Sivakanesan, | |
| 8 min | 593 | Surin et al, | |||
| 10 min | 593 | Tyagi et al, | |||
| ‒ | 593 | Zhang et al, | |||
| 30 min | 595 | Sani et al, | |||
| 25 mL acetate buffer, 2.5 mL TPTZ solution, and 2.5 mL FeCl3∙6H2O solution in a ratio of 10:1:1 | 5 min | 595 | Okonogi et al, | ||
| TPC | 10% of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, 3‒10 min equilibration, 7.5% Na2CO3 | 30 min in the dark | 765 | Ghasemzadeh et al, et al, 2022 | |
| 2 h in the dark | 765 | Sani et al, | |||
| 0.5 mL Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (stands for 8 min), 20% Na2CO3 | 2 h in the dark | 765 | Nisa et al, | ||
| 100 μL Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (stands for 3 min), 20% Na2CO3 | 30 min in the dark | 765 | Zaky et al, | ||
| 200 µL Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (stands for 6 min), 700 mmol/L Na2CO3 | 90 min in the dark | 760 | Tyagi et al, | ||
| 50% Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, 2% Na2CO3 | 30 min in the dark | 750 | Pradipta et al, | ||
| 100 µL Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, 20% Na2CO3 | 10 min in the dark | 725 | Pattananandecha et al, 2021 | ||
| Nitric oxide scavenging activity | 1 mmol/L sodium nitroprusside in 0.5 mol/L phosphate buffer saline (pH 7.4), incubated at 37 ºC, Griess reagent | 60 min | 540 | Ghasemzadeh et al, | |
| 800 µL of sodium nitroprusside, incubated at 37 ºC, Griess reagent | 150 min | 540 | Pattananandecha et al, 2021 | ||
| Reducing power | Phosphate buffer (0.2 mol/L, pH 6.6), 1% potassium ferricyanide, heated at 50 ºC for 20 min, 10% trichloroacetic acid, 0.1% ferric chloride | ‒ | 700 | Lin et al, | |
| Phosphate buffer (0.3 mol/L, pH 6.6), 1% potassium ferricyanide, heated at 50 ºC for 20 min, 10% trichloroacetic acid, 0.1% ferric chloride | 30 min | 700 | Priyanthi and Sivakanesan, | ||
| Peroxide value | Chloroform:ethanol (70:30), ammonium thiocyanate, FeCl2 | 5 min in the dark | 500 | Martillanes et al, | |
| Lipid peroxidation | Ferrous sulfate, incubated at 37 ºC for 30 min and added trichloroacetic acid, 100 µL of thiobarbituric acid, heated at 95 ºC for 10 min, and then cooled on an ice bath, centrifuged at 3 500 r/min for 10 min | 30 min | 540 | Pattananandecha et al, 2021 | |
| Superoxide anion scavenging activity assay | 200 µL of phosphate-buffered saline at pH 7.4, containing 2.5 µmol/L nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, 0.5 µmol/L nitro blue tetrazolium, 2.5 µmol/L EDTA, prepared in a 96-well plate. Phenazine methosulfate was added to initiate the reaction and incubated at room temperature | 5 min | 560 | ||
| Metal chelating capacity | 2 mmol/L FeCl2, 5 mmol/L ferrozine (160 µL), shaken | 10 min | 562 | Zaky et al, | |
| ORAC | 0.0816 µmol/L fuoresdein disocium salt in 75 mmol/L phosphate buffer (pH 7.4), 153 mmol/L AAPH, incubated at 37 ºC | 10 min in the dark | Excitation: 485; Emission: 525 | Zhang et al, | |
| Hydroxyl radical scavenging | 20 μL of 2.8 mmol/L 2-deoxy-d-ribose, 100 μL of 1 mmol/L EDTA, 10 μL of 10 mmol/L FeCl3, 10 μL of 1 mmol/L H2O2, 100 μL of ascorbic acid, phosphate buffer, incubated at 37 ºC for 1 h, 500 μL of 1% 2-thiobarbiturate and 500 μL of 2.8% ATC, ortexed and re-incubated at 80 ºC | 30 min | 532 | Pradipta et al, | |
| Sample origin and finding | |||||
| Sixteen rice ecotypes with light brown, red, and black pericarp colour from Malaysia: Black rice bran has the highest phytochemical concentration, and black rice bran extracts show the highest antioxidant activity (Ghasemzadeh et al, White and pigmented grain rice varieties from Thailand: Antioxidant activity of raw rice in ethanol extracts is higher than that of modified rice. The coloured rice in the test batch has greater antioxidant activity than the white rice (Okonogi et al, Two groups: pigmented and non-pigmented rice and glutinous rice from Malaysia: Rice samples with pigmented colour has higher levels of antioxidant qualities. Black rice has higher levels of TPC, DPPH, and FRAP than the red and brown rice (Sani et al, Rice bran powders of four rice varieties and purple rice with different organic solvents from Thailand: Regardless of the pretreatment solvent, purple rice polysaccharides show noticeably stronger antioxidant activity than the other types of rice bran (Surin et al, Monascal rice, the fermented product of rice on red mold (Monascus sp.) from Taiwan, China: Water extract formulations with added monosodium glutamate have strong antioxidant activity on reducing power and DPPH scavenging ability (Lin et al, Fermentation of rice bran using Lactobacillus lactic and L. plantarum from Indonesia: The fermented rice bran extract with the highest total phenolic content was produced and shows the strongest DPPH radical scavenging effects (Nisa et al, Two rice bran extracts (with ethanol and water) from Spain: In terms of delaying oxidation, the ethanolic extract has emerged as the most successful (Martillanes et al, Defatted rice bran and rice bran protein concentrate from China: Compared with rice bran protein concentrate, defatted rice bran shows stronger antioxidative properties and individual phenolic acid content (Zaky et al, Four glutinous purple rice and one non-glutinous purple rice from Thailand: Highland glutinous rice varieties produce purple rice extracts, which are powerful rice varieties with high levels of anthocyanins, TPC, as well as high inhibitory activity against free radicals, ABTS, lipid peroxyl radical, superoxide anions, and nitric oxide (Pattananandecha et al, Red rice varieties using water as a solvent from Sri Lanka: Following Attakkari, rice varieties Bg2907 and Bg406 show the highest levels of condensed tannin and monomeric anthocyanins, scavenging activity, reducing power, and TPC (Priyanthi and Sivakanesan, Rice bran oil (RBO) from five most popular japonica rice varieties from China: High levels of tocopherols, tocotrienols, squalene, γ-oryzanol, phytosterols, and polyphenols are found in RBOs, as well as high levels of in vitro antioxidant activity (Zhang et al, Black glutinous rice grain and black glutinous rice bran extracts from Thailand: Compared with rice grain extract, rice bran extract has greater TPC and antioxidant capabilities. Rice bran extract has a strong antioxidant capacity and is compatible with water- and lipid-based formulations after being added to the water and oil-based ones (Chanthathamrongsiri et al, Brown rice with different lactic acid bacteria (LABs), fermented brown rice (FBR), and raw brown rice from South Korea: Among all the LABs utilized, FBR exhibits the highest antioxidant activity and the highest levels of phenolics and flavonoids (Tyagi et al, Ten pigmented rice cultivars under pasting and thermal properties from Indonesia: Gogo Niti (which has a lower lightness in terms of colour) has the highest phenolic, flavonoid, and antioxidant activities for DPPH and hydroxyl scavenging, according to the results of antioxidant properties (Pradipta et al, | |||||
Table 3. Selected antioxidant assays of rice and its variety.
| Assay | Concentration | Solvent | Incubation period | Wavelength (nm) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| DPPH | 0.2 mmol/L | Methanol | 30 min in the dark | 517 | Lin et al, et al, 2019 |
| 0.1 mmol/L | Methanol | 30 min in the dark | 517 | Zaky et al, | |
| 0.5 mmol/L | Methanol | 30 min in the dark | 517 | Pradipta et al, | |
| 100 µmol/L | Methanol | 30 min in the dark | 520 | Okonogi et al, | |
| 0.5 mmol/L | Methanol | 30 min in the dark | 520 | Chanthathamrongsiri et al, 2022 | |
| 24 mg/L | Methanol | 30 min in the dark | 516 | Sani et al, | |
| 500 μmol/L | Methanol | 30‒40 min in the dark | 515 | Tyagi et al, | |
| 100 μmol/L | Methanol | 20 min in the dark | 517 | Ghasemzadeh et al, | |
| 350 µmol/L | Methanol | 15 min in the dark | 517 | Zhang et al, | |
| 0.2 mmol/L | Ethanol | 30 min in the dark | 517 | Surin et al, | |
| 0.5 mmol/L | Ethanol | 30 min in the dark | 517 | Priyanthi and Sivakanesan, | |
| Assay | Stock solution | Working solution | Incubation period | Wavelength (nm) | Reference |
| ABTS | 7 mmol/L ABTS and 2.4 mmol/L potassium persulfate | 2.5 mL of ABTS stock solution was diluted with distilled water to absorbance at 1.0 | Stock solution: 12‒16 h; Working solution: 5‒6 min | 734 | Pattananandecha et al, 2021; Surin et al, 2018 |
| 2.5 mL of ABTS stock solution was diluted with methanol to absorbance at 0.7 | Stock solution: 12‒16 h; Working solution: 5‒6 min | 734 | Zhang et al, | ||
| 2.5 mL of ABTS stock solution was diluted with ethanol to absorbance at 0.7 | Stock solution: 16 h; Working solution: 7 min | 734 | Zaky et al, | ||
| Stock solution: 12 h; Working solution: 5 min | 750 | Okonogi et al, | |||
| 14 mmol/L ABTS and 4.9 mmol/L potassium persulfate, at a ratio of 1:1 | 2.5 mL ABTS radical cation solution was diluted with distilled water to absorbance at 0.70 ± 0.02 | Stock solution: 16‒20 h; Working solution: 6 min | 734 | Chanthathamrongsiri et al, 2022 | |
| Assay | Reagent and solvent | Incubation period | Wavelength (nm) | Reference | |
| FRAP | 300 mmol/L Na acetate buffer (pH 3.6), 10 mmol/L TPTZ solution, and 20 mmol/L FeCl3∙6H2O solution at a ratio of 10:1:1 | 4 min | 593 | Priyanthi and Sivakanesan, | |
| 8 min | 593 | Surin et al, | |||
| 10 min | 593 | Tyagi et al, | |||
| ‒ | 593 | Zhang et al, | |||
| 30 min | 595 | Sani et al, | |||
| 25 mL acetate buffer, 2.5 mL TPTZ solution, and 2.5 mL FeCl3∙6H2O solution in a ratio of 10:1:1 | 5 min | 595 | Okonogi et al, | ||
| TPC | 10% of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, 3‒10 min equilibration, 7.5% Na2CO3 | 30 min in the dark | 765 | Ghasemzadeh et al, et al, 2022 | |
| 2 h in the dark | 765 | Sani et al, | |||
| 0.5 mL Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (stands for 8 min), 20% Na2CO3 | 2 h in the dark | 765 | Nisa et al, | ||
| 100 μL Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (stands for 3 min), 20% Na2CO3 | 30 min in the dark | 765 | Zaky et al, | ||
| 200 µL Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (stands for 6 min), 700 mmol/L Na2CO3 | 90 min in the dark | 760 | Tyagi et al, | ||
| 50% Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, 2% Na2CO3 | 30 min in the dark | 750 | Pradipta et al, | ||
| 100 µL Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, 20% Na2CO3 | 10 min in the dark | 725 | Pattananandecha et al, 2021 | ||
| Nitric oxide scavenging activity | 1 mmol/L sodium nitroprusside in 0.5 mol/L phosphate buffer saline (pH 7.4), incubated at 37 ºC, Griess reagent | 60 min | 540 | Ghasemzadeh et al, | |
| 800 µL of sodium nitroprusside, incubated at 37 ºC, Griess reagent | 150 min | 540 | Pattananandecha et al, 2021 | ||
| Reducing power | Phosphate buffer (0.2 mol/L, pH 6.6), 1% potassium ferricyanide, heated at 50 ºC for 20 min, 10% trichloroacetic acid, 0.1% ferric chloride | ‒ | 700 | Lin et al, | |
| Phosphate buffer (0.3 mol/L, pH 6.6), 1% potassium ferricyanide, heated at 50 ºC for 20 min, 10% trichloroacetic acid, 0.1% ferric chloride | 30 min | 700 | Priyanthi and Sivakanesan, | ||
| Peroxide value | Chloroform:ethanol (70:30), ammonium thiocyanate, FeCl2 | 5 min in the dark | 500 | Martillanes et al, | |
| Lipid peroxidation | Ferrous sulfate, incubated at 37 ºC for 30 min and added trichloroacetic acid, 100 µL of thiobarbituric acid, heated at 95 ºC for 10 min, and then cooled on an ice bath, centrifuged at 3 500 r/min for 10 min | 30 min | 540 | Pattananandecha et al, 2021 | |
| Superoxide anion scavenging activity assay | 200 µL of phosphate-buffered saline at pH 7.4, containing 2.5 µmol/L nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, 0.5 µmol/L nitro blue tetrazolium, 2.5 µmol/L EDTA, prepared in a 96-well plate. Phenazine methosulfate was added to initiate the reaction and incubated at room temperature | 5 min | 560 | ||
| Metal chelating capacity | 2 mmol/L FeCl2, 5 mmol/L ferrozine (160 µL), shaken | 10 min | 562 | Zaky et al, | |
| ORAC | 0.0816 µmol/L fuoresdein disocium salt in 75 mmol/L phosphate buffer (pH 7.4), 153 mmol/L AAPH, incubated at 37 ºC | 10 min in the dark | Excitation: 485; Emission: 525 | Zhang et al, | |
| Hydroxyl radical scavenging | 20 μL of 2.8 mmol/L 2-deoxy-d-ribose, 100 μL of 1 mmol/L EDTA, 10 μL of 10 mmol/L FeCl3, 10 μL of 1 mmol/L H2O2, 100 μL of ascorbic acid, phosphate buffer, incubated at 37 ºC for 1 h, 500 μL of 1% 2-thiobarbiturate and 500 μL of 2.8% ATC, ortexed and re-incubated at 80 ºC | 30 min | 532 | Pradipta et al, | |
| Sample origin and finding | |||||
| Sixteen rice ecotypes with light brown, red, and black pericarp colour from Malaysia: Black rice bran has the highest phytochemical concentration, and black rice bran extracts show the highest antioxidant activity (Ghasemzadeh et al, White and pigmented grain rice varieties from Thailand: Antioxidant activity of raw rice in ethanol extracts is higher than that of modified rice. The coloured rice in the test batch has greater antioxidant activity than the white rice (Okonogi et al, Two groups: pigmented and non-pigmented rice and glutinous rice from Malaysia: Rice samples with pigmented colour has higher levels of antioxidant qualities. Black rice has higher levels of TPC, DPPH, and FRAP than the red and brown rice (Sani et al, Rice bran powders of four rice varieties and purple rice with different organic solvents from Thailand: Regardless of the pretreatment solvent, purple rice polysaccharides show noticeably stronger antioxidant activity than the other types of rice bran (Surin et al, Monascal rice, the fermented product of rice on red mold (Monascus sp.) from Taiwan, China: Water extract formulations with added monosodium glutamate have strong antioxidant activity on reducing power and DPPH scavenging ability (Lin et al, Fermentation of rice bran using Lactobacillus lactic and L. plantarum from Indonesia: The fermented rice bran extract with the highest total phenolic content was produced and shows the strongest DPPH radical scavenging effects (Nisa et al, Two rice bran extracts (with ethanol and water) from Spain: In terms of delaying oxidation, the ethanolic extract has emerged as the most successful (Martillanes et al, Defatted rice bran and rice bran protein concentrate from China: Compared with rice bran protein concentrate, defatted rice bran shows stronger antioxidative properties and individual phenolic acid content (Zaky et al, Four glutinous purple rice and one non-glutinous purple rice from Thailand: Highland glutinous rice varieties produce purple rice extracts, which are powerful rice varieties with high levels of anthocyanins, TPC, as well as high inhibitory activity against free radicals, ABTS, lipid peroxyl radical, superoxide anions, and nitric oxide (Pattananandecha et al, Red rice varieties using water as a solvent from Sri Lanka: Following Attakkari, rice varieties Bg2907 and Bg406 show the highest levels of condensed tannin and monomeric anthocyanins, scavenging activity, reducing power, and TPC (Priyanthi and Sivakanesan, Rice bran oil (RBO) from five most popular japonica rice varieties from China: High levels of tocopherols, tocotrienols, squalene, γ-oryzanol, phytosterols, and polyphenols are found in RBOs, as well as high levels of in vitro antioxidant activity (Zhang et al, Black glutinous rice grain and black glutinous rice bran extracts from Thailand: Compared with rice grain extract, rice bran extract has greater TPC and antioxidant capabilities. Rice bran extract has a strong antioxidant capacity and is compatible with water- and lipid-based formulations after being added to the water and oil-based ones (Chanthathamrongsiri et al, Brown rice with different lactic acid bacteria (LABs), fermented brown rice (FBR), and raw brown rice from South Korea: Among all the LABs utilized, FBR exhibits the highest antioxidant activity and the highest levels of phenolics and flavonoids (Tyagi et al, Ten pigmented rice cultivars under pasting and thermal properties from Indonesia: Gogo Niti (which has a lower lightness in terms of colour) has the highest phenolic, flavonoid, and antioxidant activities for DPPH and hydroxyl scavenging, according to the results of antioxidant properties (Pradipta et al, | |||||
| Method | Growth condition | Incubation period | Concentration | Active against | Sample origin and finding | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Agar disc diffusion | Before putting sterile paper discs (13 mm in diameter), the bacterial suspension was inoculated on the MHA surface using a sterile cotton swab. The disc was placed on MHA medium with the addition of 20 µL of sample, and the plates were incubated at 37 ºC | 24 h | 1%‒8% | E. coli, S. typhimurium, L. monocytogenes, and S. aureus. | Jasmine rice bran (Hom Mali 105, Khao Dawk Mali 105, and Thai fragrant rice) in Thailand: Rice bran protein hydrolysate does not exhibit any antibacterial action at any of the tested concentrations and continued to form distinct colonies under the paper discs even at the maximum measured concentration (Trang and Pasuwan, | |
| 10 mg/mL | S. aureus, B. cereus, and E. coli. | Rice bran powders of four rice varieties and purple rice with different organic solvents in Thailand: Apart from the variety Sanpatong 1, the other four rice bran pre-treated with hexane inhibit S. aureus and E. coli. However, none of the polysaccharides prevent B. cereus growth (Surin et al, | ||||
| 20 µg/mL | E. coli, K. pneumoniae, S. aureus, and S. typhi | Fermented white rice water in India: A sample of rice water fermented shows the zone of inhibition against S. aureus and K. pneumoniae. E. coli is not inhibited by the fermented rice water extract (Thilagavathi et al, | ||||
| 25%, 12.5%, and 6.25% | S. typhi | Rice bran (IR50) fermented by Rhizopus oryzae in Indonesia: The highest antibacterial activity is 13.03 mm on 5 d fermentation treatment and 25% extract concentration, while the lowest antibacterial activity is 7.13 mm on 7 d fermentation treatment and 6.25% extract concentration (Jannah et al, | ||||
| 18 h | 1 mg/mL | B. cereus | Forty-two samples consist of pigmented and non-pigmented rice and glutinous rice in Malaysia: At concentration of 1 mg/mL, the pigmented rice samples can reduce B. cereus at a range of 1.60‒7.73 mm compared with the non-pigmented rice samples for only at 0‒1.40 mm (Sani et al, | |||
| Agar well diffusion | Target bacteria were cultured in MHB at 37 ºC, diluted with 0.5 McFarland standard turbidity, a turbidity of 0.5 McFarland (1 ×108 CFU/mL) A sterile stainless-steel borer was used to create wells (5 mm in diameter) in the plates. Each well received 10 μL of each extract concentration MHA was inoculated with 100 µL of broth, showing no apparent growth, and incubated at 37 ºC to measure MBC | 24 h | 7% to 15% | B. cereus, S. aureus, S. typhi, and E. coli | Fermented beverage brewed from rice in India: Shown good antibacterial properties, with the beverage made with Scoparia dulcis and Leucas lavandulaefolia exhibiting the highest inhibition zone of 34.0 mm against E. coli to 39.5 mm against B. cereus. All the different types of beverages tested show a zone of inhibition higher than plain rice beverage (Bala Murugan et al, | |
| 200 mg/mL | E. coli | Rice pedicle extracts were obtained by high pressure reactor using water and NaOH at 70 ºC, 90 ºC, 110 ºC, and 130 ºC in Iran: The ethanol extracts with the highest antimicrobial activity levels have an inhibitory effect on E. coli with inhibition zone of 0.8 ± 0.02 cm (Ahmadi and Aarabi, | ||||
| 50 and 100 μg/mL | S. typhi and S. aureus | Kerala red rice (Kuthuvilakku brand) grains in India: Against S. typhimurium, with an inhibition zone of 18.1 and 21.2 mm, respectively, for 50 and 100 μg/mL. The same is 14.6 and 17.4 mm against S. aureus (Mathew et al, | ||||
| 400 mg/mL | E. coli and S. aureus | Rice bran of Thai black rice and germinated brown rice (fermented and nonfermented rice bran) in Thailand: The 400 mg/mL concentration extracts inhibit the growth of both S. aureus and E. coli (Sutthanut et al, | ||||
| 12‒16 h | 10, 25, 50, 75, and 100 µL | S. aureus, Bacillus subtilis, E. coli, Streptococcus pyogenes, B. cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Salmonella spp. | Fresh black rice grains in India: All three Gram-positive bacteria are highly inhibited by the methanolic extract of black rice grains, whereas Salmonella species among four Gram-negative bacteria are more inhibited, showing minimum of 4 mm zone of inhibition at 10 µL and maximum of 14 mm zone of inhibition at 100 µL (Chandramouli et al, | |||
| 18 h | 250, 500, and 750 mg/mL | S. typhimurium and L. monocytogenes | Purple rice ferulic acid extract from Indonesia: The ferulic acid extract from purple rice at concentrations of 250, 500, and 750 mg/mL inhibited S. typhimurium and L. Monocytogenes (Wijayanti et al, | |||
| 18‒24 h | 100, 200, 400, and 600 mg/mL | Propionibacterium acnes and Methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) | Red yeast rice in Indonesia: Ethyl acetate and ethanol extracts have activity against P. acnes ATCC 11827 and MRSA ATCC BAA-1683, but n-hexane extract does not have activity against these two bacteria. The increase in the inhibitory diameter of the extract is directly proportional to the concentration of the extract (Milanda et al, | |||
| MIC and MBC | Bacterial strains were grown, inoculated, and utilized as the inoculum in nutrient broth media overnight at 37 °C. The inoculum’s turbidity was adjusted roughly 1 × 105 CFU/mL | 24 h | 10% to 100% | B. cereus, S. aureus, S. typhi, and E. coli | Beverage brewed with S. dulcis and L. lavandulaefolia exhibits activity against E. coli and B. cereus，as well as antibacterial activity against all the test pathogens used in the study with the highest antibacterial activity against B. cereus (Bala Murugan et al, | |
| The target bacteria were cultivated in MHB at 37 °C, diluted with 0.5 McFarland standard turbidity, and then diluted once more (at 1:1000 ratio) in MHB | 1.17 to 150 mg/mL | E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and B. subtilis | Rice bran extracts prepared using solvents with various polarities in Iraq: B. subtilis bacterial growth is inhibited by ethanol and n-hexane extracts at 150 mg/mL. Extracts of ethanol and methanol with MIC values of 150 mg/mL show antibacterial action against E. coli. However, none of the extracts show any efficacy against P. aeruginosa (Talib et al, | |||
| 0.8‒200 mg/mL | E. coli and S. aureus | Rice bran of Thai black rice (H7) and germinated brown rice (G13) (fermented and nonfermented rice bran) in Thailand: The MIC values of H7F and G13F on E. coli and S. aureus growth are detected at 25 and 50 mg/mL concentrations, respectively. For MBC, 50 mg/mL of both fermented rice bran extracts inhibit the growth of S. aures (Sutthanut et al, | ||||
| 0.5% and 2.0% | Listeria innocua and E. coli | Two rice bran extracts with ethanol and water in Spain: Both extracts similarly inhibit the growth of L. innocua and E. coli, and the ethanol sample shows the strongest growth inhibition (Martillanes et al, | ||||
| Incubated at 37 ºC for 18 h in sterile MHB with a turbidity of 0.5 McFarland. Then, 30 μL of 0.015% resazurin dye was added and incubated for 2-3 h for color change | 18 h | 0.48 to 62.5 μg/mL | S. typhi and S. aureus | Kerala red rice (Kuthuvilakku brand) grains in India: The foodborne pathogens S. typhimurium and S. aureus are both susceptible to the possible antibacterial effects of rice water, with S. typhimurium showing the strongest effects (Mathew et al, | ||
| A sterile swab was used to transfer the top of each colony into a test tube containing 5 mL of sterile distilled water, then incubated at 30 ºC. The suspension density was adjusted to the 0.5 McFarland standard (1 × 10⁸ CFU/mL) | 18 h | 3.125 to 100 mg/mL | B. cereus | Forty-two samples (pigmented and non-pigmented rice and glutinous rice) in Malaysia: Black glutinous rice and red rice both display the lowest MICs and MBCs. Pigmented rice samples outperform the non-pigmented rice in their ability to inhibit the growth and occurrence of B. cereus (Sani et al, | ||
| A 0.9% sodium chloride solution was used to suspend bacterial cultures, and the turbidity was adjusted to match the 0.5 McFarland standard (1.5 × 10⁸ CFU/mL) | 18‒24 h | 0.781-200 mg/mL | C. acnes and MRSA | Red yeast rice in Indonesia: Red yeast rice extracts in ethanol and ethyl acetate are bactericidal against MRSA and C. acnes, respectively. Red yeast rice’s ethyl acetate extract is more potent than C. acnes against MRSA (Milanda et al, | ||
| The inoculum’s turbidity was adjusted roughly to 1 × 105 CFU/mL | 24 and 48 h | 0.78‒100 mg/mL | S. aureus and C. acnes | Monascus rice ferment extracts in Taiwan, China: Although methanol extracts have a stronger antibacterial capacity than water extracts, monosodium glutamate still has the highest antibacterial capacity (Lin et al, | ||
| Viability cell count | All test tubes were incubated and shaken at 180 r/min and 37 ºC. The viable cells were then counted on TSA at 0 and 24 h, while the viable cells for Vibrio parahaemolyticus were counted on TSA supplemented with 3% NaCl | 24 h | 112.5, 225, 450, and 900 µg/mL | S. aureus, E. coli, Salmonella Enteritidis, and V. parahae- molyticus | Four glutinous purple rice and one non-glutinous purple rice in Thailand: The S. aureus, E. coli, S. Enteritidis, and V. parahaemolyticus foodborne pathogens are all inhibited by purple rice extract of the Khao’ Gam Luem-Phua variety. S. aureus and S. enteritidis experience a 100% reduction (Pattananandecha et al, |
Table 4. Selected antibacterial activities of rice and its variety.
| Method | Growth condition | Incubation period | Concentration | Active against | Sample origin and finding | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Agar disc diffusion | Before putting sterile paper discs (13 mm in diameter), the bacterial suspension was inoculated on the MHA surface using a sterile cotton swab. The disc was placed on MHA medium with the addition of 20 µL of sample, and the plates were incubated at 37 ºC | 24 h | 1%‒8% | E. coli, S. typhimurium, L. monocytogenes, and S. aureus. | Jasmine rice bran (Hom Mali 105, Khao Dawk Mali 105, and Thai fragrant rice) in Thailand: Rice bran protein hydrolysate does not exhibit any antibacterial action at any of the tested concentrations and continued to form distinct colonies under the paper discs even at the maximum measured concentration (Trang and Pasuwan, | |
| 10 mg/mL | S. aureus, B. cereus, and E. coli. | Rice bran powders of four rice varieties and purple rice with different organic solvents in Thailand: Apart from the variety Sanpatong 1, the other four rice bran pre-treated with hexane inhibit S. aureus and E. coli. However, none of the polysaccharides prevent B. cereus growth (Surin et al, | ||||
| 20 µg/mL | E. coli, K. pneumoniae, S. aureus, and S. typhi | Fermented white rice water in India: A sample of rice water fermented shows the zone of inhibition against S. aureus and K. pneumoniae. E. coli is not inhibited by the fermented rice water extract (Thilagavathi et al, | ||||
| 25%, 12.5%, and 6.25% | S. typhi | Rice bran (IR50) fermented by Rhizopus oryzae in Indonesia: The highest antibacterial activity is 13.03 mm on 5 d fermentation treatment and 25% extract concentration, while the lowest antibacterial activity is 7.13 mm on 7 d fermentation treatment and 6.25% extract concentration (Jannah et al, | ||||
| 18 h | 1 mg/mL | B. cereus | Forty-two samples consist of pigmented and non-pigmented rice and glutinous rice in Malaysia: At concentration of 1 mg/mL, the pigmented rice samples can reduce B. cereus at a range of 1.60‒7.73 mm compared with the non-pigmented rice samples for only at 0‒1.40 mm (Sani et al, | |||
| Agar well diffusion | Target bacteria were cultured in MHB at 37 ºC, diluted with 0.5 McFarland standard turbidity, a turbidity of 0.5 McFarland (1 ×108 CFU/mL) A sterile stainless-steel borer was used to create wells (5 mm in diameter) in the plates. Each well received 10 μL of each extract concentration MHA was inoculated with 100 µL of broth, showing no apparent growth, and incubated at 37 ºC to measure MBC | 24 h | 7% to 15% | B. cereus, S. aureus, S. typhi, and E. coli | Fermented beverage brewed from rice in India: Shown good antibacterial properties, with the beverage made with Scoparia dulcis and Leucas lavandulaefolia exhibiting the highest inhibition zone of 34.0 mm against E. coli to 39.5 mm against B. cereus. All the different types of beverages tested show a zone of inhibition higher than plain rice beverage (Bala Murugan et al, | |
| 200 mg/mL | E. coli | Rice pedicle extracts were obtained by high pressure reactor using water and NaOH at 70 ºC, 90 ºC, 110 ºC, and 130 ºC in Iran: The ethanol extracts with the highest antimicrobial activity levels have an inhibitory effect on E. coli with inhibition zone of 0.8 ± 0.02 cm (Ahmadi and Aarabi, | ||||
| 50 and 100 μg/mL | S. typhi and S. aureus | Kerala red rice (Kuthuvilakku brand) grains in India: Against S. typhimurium, with an inhibition zone of 18.1 and 21.2 mm, respectively, for 50 and 100 μg/mL. The same is 14.6 and 17.4 mm against S. aureus (Mathew et al, | ||||
| 400 mg/mL | E. coli and S. aureus | Rice bran of Thai black rice and germinated brown rice (fermented and nonfermented rice bran) in Thailand: The 400 mg/mL concentration extracts inhibit the growth of both S. aureus and E. coli (Sutthanut et al, | ||||
| 12‒16 h | 10, 25, 50, 75, and 100 µL | S. aureus, Bacillus subtilis, E. coli, Streptococcus pyogenes, B. cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Salmonella spp. | Fresh black rice grains in India: All three Gram-positive bacteria are highly inhibited by the methanolic extract of black rice grains, whereas Salmonella species among four Gram-negative bacteria are more inhibited, showing minimum of 4 mm zone of inhibition at 10 µL and maximum of 14 mm zone of inhibition at 100 µL (Chandramouli et al, | |||
| 18 h | 250, 500, and 750 mg/mL | S. typhimurium and L. monocytogenes | Purple rice ferulic acid extract from Indonesia: The ferulic acid extract from purple rice at concentrations of 250, 500, and 750 mg/mL inhibited S. typhimurium and L. Monocytogenes (Wijayanti et al, | |||
| 18‒24 h | 100, 200, 400, and 600 mg/mL | Propionibacterium acnes and Methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) | Red yeast rice in Indonesia: Ethyl acetate and ethanol extracts have activity against P. acnes ATCC 11827 and MRSA ATCC BAA-1683, but n-hexane extract does not have activity against these two bacteria. The increase in the inhibitory diameter of the extract is directly proportional to the concentration of the extract (Milanda et al, | |||
| MIC and MBC | Bacterial strains were grown, inoculated, and utilized as the inoculum in nutrient broth media overnight at 37 °C. The inoculum’s turbidity was adjusted roughly 1 × 105 CFU/mL | 24 h | 10% to 100% | B. cereus, S. aureus, S. typhi, and E. coli | Beverage brewed with S. dulcis and L. lavandulaefolia exhibits activity against E. coli and B. cereus，as well as antibacterial activity against all the test pathogens used in the study with the highest antibacterial activity against B. cereus (Bala Murugan et al, | |
| The target bacteria were cultivated in MHB at 37 °C, diluted with 0.5 McFarland standard turbidity, and then diluted once more (at 1:1000 ratio) in MHB | 1.17 to 150 mg/mL | E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and B. subtilis | Rice bran extracts prepared using solvents with various polarities in Iraq: B. subtilis bacterial growth is inhibited by ethanol and n-hexane extracts at 150 mg/mL. Extracts of ethanol and methanol with MIC values of 150 mg/mL show antibacterial action against E. coli. However, none of the extracts show any efficacy against P. aeruginosa (Talib et al, | |||
| 0.8‒200 mg/mL | E. coli and S. aureus | Rice bran of Thai black rice (H7) and germinated brown rice (G13) (fermented and nonfermented rice bran) in Thailand: The MIC values of H7F and G13F on E. coli and S. aureus growth are detected at 25 and 50 mg/mL concentrations, respectively. For MBC, 50 mg/mL of both fermented rice bran extracts inhibit the growth of S. aures (Sutthanut et al, | ||||
| 0.5% and 2.0% | Listeria innocua and E. coli | Two rice bran extracts with ethanol and water in Spain: Both extracts similarly inhibit the growth of L. innocua and E. coli, and the ethanol sample shows the strongest growth inhibition (Martillanes et al, | ||||
| Incubated at 37 ºC for 18 h in sterile MHB with a turbidity of 0.5 McFarland. Then, 30 μL of 0.015% resazurin dye was added and incubated for 2-3 h for color change | 18 h | 0.48 to 62.5 μg/mL | S. typhi and S. aureus | Kerala red rice (Kuthuvilakku brand) grains in India: The foodborne pathogens S. typhimurium and S. aureus are both susceptible to the possible antibacterial effects of rice water, with S. typhimurium showing the strongest effects (Mathew et al, | ||
| A sterile swab was used to transfer the top of each colony into a test tube containing 5 mL of sterile distilled water, then incubated at 30 ºC. The suspension density was adjusted to the 0.5 McFarland standard (1 × 10⁸ CFU/mL) | 18 h | 3.125 to 100 mg/mL | B. cereus | Forty-two samples (pigmented and non-pigmented rice and glutinous rice) in Malaysia: Black glutinous rice and red rice both display the lowest MICs and MBCs. Pigmented rice samples outperform the non-pigmented rice in their ability to inhibit the growth and occurrence of B. cereus (Sani et al, | ||
| A 0.9% sodium chloride solution was used to suspend bacterial cultures, and the turbidity was adjusted to match the 0.5 McFarland standard (1.5 × 10⁸ CFU/mL) | 18‒24 h | 0.781-200 mg/mL | C. acnes and MRSA | Red yeast rice in Indonesia: Red yeast rice extracts in ethanol and ethyl acetate are bactericidal against MRSA and C. acnes, respectively. Red yeast rice’s ethyl acetate extract is more potent than C. acnes against MRSA (Milanda et al, | ||
| The inoculum’s turbidity was adjusted roughly to 1 × 105 CFU/mL | 24 and 48 h | 0.78‒100 mg/mL | S. aureus and C. acnes | Monascus rice ferment extracts in Taiwan, China: Although methanol extracts have a stronger antibacterial capacity than water extracts, monosodium glutamate still has the highest antibacterial capacity (Lin et al, | ||
| Viability cell count | All test tubes were incubated and shaken at 180 r/min and 37 ºC. The viable cells were then counted on TSA at 0 and 24 h, while the viable cells for Vibrio parahaemolyticus were counted on TSA supplemented with 3% NaCl | 24 h | 112.5, 225, 450, and 900 µg/mL | S. aureus, E. coli, Salmonella Enteritidis, and V. parahae- molyticus | Four glutinous purple rice and one non-glutinous purple rice in Thailand: The S. aureus, E. coli, S. Enteritidis, and V. parahaemolyticus foodborne pathogens are all inhibited by purple rice extract of the Khao’ Gam Luem-Phua variety. S. aureus and S. enteritidis experience a 100% reduction (Pattananandecha et al, |
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